Methane Emission, Carbon Footprint and Productivity of Specialized Dairy Cows Supplemented with Bitter Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz).

The objective of this research was to determine the effect of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) supplementation on enteric methane (CH4) emissions, carbon footprint, and production parameters in dairy cows. Daily concentrate supply for Jersey and Jersey * Holstein breeds was evaluated in four treatments (T): T1: 100% commercial concentrate; T2: 70% concentrate + 30% cassava leaves; T3: 70% concentrate + 30% cassava roots; and T4: 70% concentrate + 15% cassava leaves + 15% cassava root chips. Measurements of CH4 emissions were performed using the polytunnel technique. Average daily dry matter intake ranged from 7.8 to 8.5 kg dry matter (DM). Cassava leaves were characterized by a high crude protein (CP) content (171 g CP/kg DM), with 5 times more neutral detergent fiber (NDF) content than cassava root (587 vs. 108 g NDF/kg DM). Average enteric CH4 emissions per animal ranged from 194 to 234 g/d (p > 0.05). The carbon footprint was reduced by replacing 30% of the concentrate with cassava leaves and/or roots. Energy-corrected milk production was 1.15 times higher in Jersey * Holstein animals than Jersey cows (47 vs. 55 kg). Therefore, supplementation with cassava leaves and/or roots is a nutritionally and environmentally sustainable strategy.

Relationship between Chemical Composition and In Vitro Methane Production of High Andean Grasses.

The present study aims to establish the relationship between chemical composition and in vitro methane (CH4) production of high Andean grasses. For this purpose, eight species were collected in dry and rainy seasons: Alchemilla pinnata, Distichia muscoides, Carex ecuadorica, Hipochoeris taraxacoides, Mulhenbergia fastigiata, Mulhenbergia peruviana, Stipa brachiphylla and Stipa mucronata. They were chemically analyzed and incubated under an in vitro system. Species such as A. pinnata and H. taraxacoides were characterized by high crude protein (CP. 124 g/kg DM) and low neutral detergent fiber (NDF. 293 g/kg DM) contents in both seasons, contrary to Stipa grasses. This same pattern was obtained for H. taraxacoides, which presented the highest values of gas production, organic matter digestibility (DOM), metabolizable energy (ME) and CH4 production (241 mL/g DM, 59% DOM, 8.4 MJ ME/kg DM and 37.7 mL CH4/g DM, on average). For most species, the content of CP, acid detergent fiber (FDA) and ME was higher in the rainy season than in the dry season, which was the opposite for CH4 production (p ≥ 0.05). In general, the nutritional content that most explained the behavior of CH4 production was the NDF content (R2 = 0.69). Grasses characterized by high NDF content produced less CH4 (R = -0.85).

Role of Secondary Plant Metabolites on Enteric Methane Mitigation in Ruminants.

The rumen microbiome plays a fundamental role in all ruminant species, it is involved in health, nutrient utilization, detoxification, and methane emissions. Methane is a greenhouse gas which is eructated in large volumes by ruminants grazing extensive grasslands in the tropical regions of the world. Enteric methane is the largest contributor to the emissions of greenhouse gases originating from animal agriculture. A large variety of plants containing secondary metabolites [essential oils (terpenoids), tannins, saponins, and flavonoids] have been evaluated as cattle feedstuffs and changes in volatile fatty acid proportions and methane synthesis in the rumen have been assessed. Alterations to the rumen microbiome may lead to changes in diversity, composition, and structure of the methanogen community. Legumes containing condensed tannins such as Leucaena leucocephala have shown a good methane mitigating effect when fed at levels of up to 30-35% of ration dry matter in cattle as a result of the effect of condensed tannins on rumen bacteria and methanogens. It has been shown that saponins disrupt the membrane of rumen protozoa, thus decreasing the numbers of both protozoa and methanogenic archaea. Trials carried out with cattle housed in respiration chambers have demonstrated the enteric methane mitigation effect in cattle and sheep of tropical legumes such as Enterolobium cyclocarpum and Samanea saman which contain saponins. Essential oils are volatile constituents of terpenoid or non-terpenoid origin which impair energy metabolism of archaea and have shown reductions of up to 26% in enteric methane emissions in ruminants. There is emerging evidence showing the potential of flavonoids as methane mitigating compounds, but more work is required in vivo to confirm preliminary findings. From the information hereby presented, it is clear that plant secondary metabolites can be a rational approach to modulate the rumen microbiome and modify its function, some species of rumen microbes improve protein and fiber degradation and reduce feed energy loss as methane in ruminants fed tropical plant species.

Nutritional Quality, Voluntary Intake and Enteric Methane Emissions of Diets Based on Novel Cayman Grass and Its Associations With Two Leucaena Shrub Legumes.

Methane (CH4) emissions from enteric fermentation in cattle are an important source of greenhouse gases, accounting for about 40% of all agricultural emissions. Diet quality plays a fundamental role in determining the magnitude of CH4 emissions. Specifically, the inclusion of feeds with high digestibility and nutritional value have been reported to be a viable option for reducing CH4 emissions and, simultaneously, increase animal productivity. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of the nutritional composition and voluntary intake of diets based on tropical forages upon CH4 emissions from zebu steers. Five treatments (diets) were evaluated: Cay1: Urochloa hybrid cv. Cayman (harvested after 65 days of regrowth: low quality); Cay2: cv. Cayman harvested after 45 days of regrowth; CayLl: cv. Cayman + Leucaena leucocephala; CayLd: cv. Cayman + Leucaena diversifolia; Hay: Dichantium aristatum hay as a comparator of common naturalized pasture. For each diet representing different levels of intensification (naturalized pasture, improved pasture, and silvopastoral systems), CH4 emissions were measured using the polytunnel technique with four zebu steers housed in individual chambers. The CH4 accumulated was monitored using an infrared multigas analyzer, and the voluntary forage intake of each animal was calculated. Dry matter intake (DMI, % of body weight) ranged between 0.77 and 2.94 among diets offered. Emissions of CH4 per kg of DMI were significantly higher (P < 0.0001) in Cay1 (60.4 g), compared to other treatments. Diets that included Leucaena forage legumes had generally higher crude protein contents and higher DMI. Cay1 and Hay which had low protein content and digestibility had a higher CH4 emission intensity (per unit live weight gain) compared to Cay2, CayLl and CayLd. Our results suggest that grass consumed after a regrowth period of 45 days results in lower CH4 emissions intensities compared to those observed following a regrowth period of 65 days. Diets with Leucaena inclusion showed advantages in nutrient intake that are reflected in greater live weight gains of cattle. Consequently, the intensity of the emissions generated in the legume-based systems were lower suggesting that they are a good option for achieving the emission reduction goals of sustainable tropical cattle production.

Effect of the addition of Enterolobium cyclocarpum pods and Gliricidia sepium forage to Brachiaria brizantha on dry matter degradation, volatile fatty acid concentration, and in vitro methane production.

The purpose of this study was to determine the in vitro fermentation and methane (CH4) production in the grass Brachiaria brizantha (B) alone or when mixed with Gliricidia sepium forage (G) and/or Enterolobium cyclocarpum pods (E). Theses substrates were incubated in the following proportions: B100 (B100%), B85E15 (B85% + E15%), B85G15 (B85% + G15%), B85GE15 (B85% + G7.5% + E7.5%), and B70GE30 (B70% + G15% + E15%). Dry matter degradation (DMD), volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentration, and CH4 production were measured at 12, 24, and 48 h of incubation. Experimental design was a randomized complete block. At 48-h incubation, DMD ranged between 46.5 and 51.2% (P = 0.0015). The lowest cumulative gas production (CGP) was observed in B85E15 and B85G15 (160 mL CGP/g organic matter, on average). At 48 h, B85G15 and B100 produced 28.8 and 30.2 mg CH4/g DMD, respectively, while B85E15 or the mixtures, 33.5 mg CH4/g DMD, on average (P ≤ 0.05). B85E15 and B70G30 had the highest concentration of total VFA (P ≤ 0.05). Results showed that B85E15 and B70GE30 favor DMD and increased total production of VFA and CH4 at 48 h. Supplementing livestock feed with legume forages and pods allows improves the nutritional quality of the diet and the fermentation patterns.

Effect of Dried Leaves of Leucaena leucocephala on Rumen Fermentation, Rumen Microbial Population, and Enteric Methane Production in Crossbred Heifers.

The effects of dietary inclusion of dried Leucaena leucocephala leaves (DLL) on nutrient digestibility, fermentation parameters, microbial rumen population, and production of enteric methane (CH4) in crossbred heifers were evaluated. Four heifers were used in a 4 × 4 Latin square design consisting of four periods and four levels of inclusion of DLL: 0%, 12%, 24%, and 36% of dry matter (DM) intake. Results showed that DM intake (DMI), organic matter intake, and gross energy intake (GEI) were similar (p > 0.05) among treatments. Apparent digestibility of organic matter, neutral detergent fiber, and energy decreased with increasing levels of DLL in the ration (p < 0.05). In contrast, digestible crude protein (CP) was higher (p < 0.05) in treatments with 12% and 24% DM of DLL. The inclusion of DLL did not affect (p > 0.05) rumen pH and total volatile fatty acids. Rumen microbial community was not affected (p > 0.05) by treatment. There was a linear reduction (p < 0.05) in CH4 emissions as the levels of DLL in the ration were increased. Results of this study suggest that an inclusion of 12% DM of ration as DLL enhances digestible CP and reduces daily production of enteric CH4 without adversely affecting DMI, rumen microbial population, and fermentation parameters.

Effects of long-term diet supplementation with Gliricidia sepium foliage mixed with Enterolobium cyclocarpum pods on enteric methane, apparent digestibility, and rumen microbial population in crossbred heifers1.

In the last decades, strategies have been evaluated to reduce rumen methane (CH4) production by supplementing tropical forages rich in secondary compounds; however, most of these beneficial effects need to be validated in terms of their persistence over time. The aim of this study was to assess CH4 emissions over time in heifers fed with and without Gliricidia sepium foliage (G) mixed with ground pods of Enterolobium cyclocarpum(E). Two groups of 4 crossbred (Bos taurus x Bos indicus) heifers (284 ±17 kg initial weight) were fed with 2 diets (0% and 15% of a mixture of the pods and foliage [E + G:0 and E + G:15, respectively]) over 80 d, plus 2 wk before the experiment, in which every animal was fed a legume and pod-free diet. Every 14 d, CH4 production, apparent digestibility, volatile fatty acids (VFA), and microbial population were quantified for each animal. The experiment was conducted with a repeated measurements design over time. Diets fed differed in terms of their crude protein (CP), condensed tannins, and saponins content supplied by E. cyclocarpum and G. sepium. For most of the experiment, dry matter intake (DMI) and digestible dry-matter intake (DDMI) were 6.3 kg DMI/d and 512 g DDMI/kg, respectively, for both diets (diet: P > 0.05). Apparent digestible crude protein (DCP) was reduced by 21 g DCP/kg DM when the diet was supplemented with E + G:15 (P = 0.040). Molar proportions of VFA's in the rumen did not differ between diets or in time (P > 0.05). Daily methane production, expressed in relation to DMI, was 23.95 vs. 23.32 g CH4/kg DMI for the diet E + G:0 and E + G:15, respectively (diet: P = 0.016; Time: P > 0.05). Percent gross energy loss as CH4 (Ym) with grass-only diets was above 8.1%, whereas when feeding heifers with the alternate supplementation, Ym values of 7.59% (P = 0.016) were observed. The relative abundance of total bacterial, protozoa, and methanogenic archaeal replicates was not affected by time nor by the incorporation of legume and pods into the diet (P > 0.05). Results suggest that addition of G. sepium mixed with E. cyclocarpum pods can reduce CH4 production in heifers and this response remains over time, without effect on microbial population and VFA concentration and a slight reduction in CPD digestibility.

Producción de metano in vitro de dos gramíneas tropicales solas y mezcladas con Leucaena leucocephala o Gliricidia sepium / In vitro methane production from two tropical grasses alone or in combination with Leucaena leucocephala or Gliricidia sepium / Produção in vitro de metano a partir duas gramíneas tropicais avaliadas individualmente e associadas com Leucaena leucocephala ou Gliciridia sepium

La percepción del cambio climático como uno de los grandes problemas ambientales del siglo XXI viene creciendo en las últimas décadas. La emisión de metano por fermentación ruminal es una pérdida de energía potencialmente utilizable. El objetivo fue estimar las emisiones de metano de forrajes usados en dietas para alimentar bovinos. Las dietas evaluadas provenían de un sistema silvopastoril intensivo (SSPi) con leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala; Leu) y pasto guinea (Megathyrsus maximus; Gui) y de confinamiento con matarratón (Gliricidia sepium; Mat) y pasto ángleton (Dichantium aristatum; Ang). Muestras representativas de los forrajes fueron analizadas por su contenido de nutrientes; las emisiones de metano de los forrajes solos y sus mezclas (90:10, 80:20 y 70:30, teniendo mayor participación las gramíneas) fueron medidas in vitro, mediante la técnica de producción de gas. La degradación de la materia seca se midió a las 24, 48, 72 y 96 h. Las leguminosas tuvieron mayores contenidos de proteína y grasa bruta; mientras que las gramíneas, mayores contenidos de fibra insoluble en detergente neutro y ácido y cenizas. La mayor producción de gas a las 96 h fue para Gui70-Leu30 (156 ml) y la menor fue Leu100 (P≤0,05; 121 ml). Para el sistema en confinamiento, la acumulación de gas de Ang70-Mat30 y Ang80-Mat20 a partir de a las 48 horas fueron superiores a los demás tratamientos (P<0,05). Las leguminosas mostraron mayores tasas de degradación que las gramíneas (P≤0,05). En ambos sistemas de producción no se encontraron diferencias significativas en la pérdida de energía digerida en forma de metano.

Climate change perception in recent decades has been growing as one of the major environmental issues of the XXI century. Methane emissions by rumen fermentation represent a loss of potentially usable energy. The objective of this study was to estimate methane emissions from various forages used in beef cattle diets. The diets evaluated corresponded to an intensive silvopastoral system (SSPi) with Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala, Leu) and Guinea grass (Megathyrsus maximus; Gui) and a confinement system with Matarratón (Gliricidia sepium; Mat) and Angleton grass (Dichanthium aristatum; Ang). Representative forage samples were analyzed for nutrient contents. Methane emissions of individual forages and forage mixtures (90:10, 80:20, and 70:30, for grass:forage, respectively) were measured in vitro using the gas production technique. Dry matter degradation was measured at 24, 48, 72, and 96 h. Legumes had higher protein and crude fat content than grasses, while grasses had higher neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, and ash. The mixture composed by Gui70 - Leu30 had the highest gas production at 96 h (156 ml), while the lowest corresponded to Leu100 (P≤0.05; 121 ml). Regarding the confinement system results, gas accumulation after 48 hours by Ang70 - Mat30, and Ang80 - Mat20 were higher than the other treatments (P<0.05). Legumes had higher degradation rates than grasses (P≤0.05). No significant differences were found for methane losses between both production systems.

A percepção da mudança climática como um dos grandes problemas ambientais do seculo XXI está aumentando nas últimas décadas. A emisão de metano por fermentação ruminal é uma perda de energia potencialmente utilizavel. O objetivo foi estimar as emisões de metano de forragens utilizados em dietas para alimentar bovinos. As dietas avaliadas vieram de um sistema silvopastoril intensivo (SSPi) com leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala; Leu) e capim-mombaça (Megathyrsus maximus; Gui); e de confinamento com gliricídia (Gliricidia sepium; Mat) e a pastagem ángleton (Dichantium aristatum; Ang). Amostras representativas das forragens foram analisadas por seu conteúdo de nutrientes; as emissões de metano das forragens semeadas em monocultivo e misturadas (90:10, 80:20 e 70:30, tendo maior participação às gramíneas) foram medidas in vitro, mediante a técnica de produção de gás. A degradação da matéria seca estimou-se ás 24, 48, 72 e 96 h. As leguminosas tiveram maiores conteúdos de proteína e gordura bruta; enquanto as gramíneas tiveram maior fibra insolúvel em detergente neutro e azedo e cinzas. A maior produção de gás ás 96 h foi para Gui70-Leu30 (156 ml) e a menor foi Leu100 (P≤0,05; 121 ml). Para o sistema em confinamento, a acumulação de gás de Ang70-Mat30 e Ang80-Mat20 a partir das 48 horas foram superiores aos demais tratamentos (P<0,05). As leguminosas demonstraram maiores taxas de degradação que as gramíneas (P≤0,05). Nos dois sistemas de produção não se encontraram diferenças significativas na perda de energia digerida em forma de metano.